Exotics
Avian analgesia
Marie Kubiak
Published Online:1 Aug 2016https://doi.org/10.12968/coan.2016.21.8.480
Abstract
Avian patients are considered to have equivalent perception of pain to mammalian species, but identification of pain can be compromised by behavioural adaptations. This may result in pain management being under-utilised in clinical practice. Use of analgesics is further compromised by a lack of evidence as to safe, effective agents and documented dosing regimens. Analgesia should be used where possible if pain is potentially present in a patient, and available medications are discussed.
Sources of suggested avian analgesic doses
- Carpenter J, ed (2012) Exotic Animal Formulary. 4th edn. Elsevier Saunders, St Louis, MO Google Scholar
- Harcourt-Brown NChitty J, eds (2005) BSAVA Manual of Psittacine Birds. 2nd edn. British Small Animal Veterinary Association, Gloucester Google Scholar
References
- (1973) Subcutaneous air pouches in the Marabou stork (Leptoptios curmeniferus) J Zool 170: 493–9 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2015) Pharmacokinetics of compounded intravenous and oral gabapentin in Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis). J Avian Med Surg 29: 165–73. doi: https://doi.org/10.1647/2014-025 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2010) Pharmacokinetics of tramadol hydrochloride and its metabolite O-desmethyltramadol in peafowl (Pavo cristatus). J Zoo Wildl Med 41: 671–6 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2010) Development of an avian brachial plexus nerve block technique for perioperative analgesia in mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos). J Avian Med Surg 24: 24–34 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2016) Lameness. In: Graham JE, ed. Blackwell's Five-Minute Veterinary Consult: Avian. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester: 159 Google Scholar
- (1995) Influence of a mu- and kappa-opioid agonist on isoflurane minimal anesthetic concentration in chickens. Am J Vet Res 56: 806–11 Google Scholar
- (1994) Evaluation of the isoflurane-sparing effects of butorphanol and flunixin in psittaciformes.
Proceedings of the Association of Avian Veterinarians Conference ,28–30 September 1994 ,Reno, NV : 17–19 Google Scholar - (1994) Determination of the ED50 of Isoflurane and evaluation of the isoflurane-sparing effect of butorphanol in cockatoos (Cacatua spp). Vet Surg 23: 429–33 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2007) NSAIDs and scavenging birds: potential impacts beyond Asia's critically endangered vultures. Biol Lett 3: 91–4 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2015) Renal gastrointestinal and hemostatic effects of oral administration of meloxicam to Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis). Am J Vet Res 76: 308–17 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2007) The use of gabapentin to treat presumed neuralgia in a little corella (Cacatua sanguinea).
Proceedings of the 28th Association of Avian Veterinarians Conference ,6–9 August 2007 ,Providence, RI : 169–72 Google Scholar - (2016) Effects of methadone on the minimum anesthetic concentration of isoflurane and its effects on heart rate, blood pressure and ventilation during isoflurane anesthesia in hens (Gallus gallus domesticus). PloS One 11: e0152546. doi: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0152546 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2015) Effects of methadone exposure during development on avian brain and blood cells. Pharmacology & Pharmacy : 477–88: doi: https://doi.org/10.4236/pp.2015.610050 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2013) Antinociceptive effects of tramadol hydrochloride after intravenous administration to Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis). Am J Vet Res74: 201–6 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2011) Pharmacokinetics of butorphanol after intravenous intramuscular and oral administration in Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis). J Avian Med Surg 25: 185–91. doi: https://doi.org/10.1647/2009-054.1 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2012) Antinociceptive effects after oral administration of tramadol hydrochloride in Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis). Am J Vet Res 73: 1148–52 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2004) Avian pain and analgesia.
Proceedings of the 25th Association of Avian Veterinarians Conference ,17–19 August, 2004 ,New Orleans, LA : 165–74 Google Scholar - (1997) Evaluation of a protocol for determining the effectiveness of pretreatment with local analgesics for reducing experimentally induced articular pain in domestic fowl. Res Vet Sci 63: 263–7 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2003) Disposition and analgesic effects of fentanyl in White cockatoos (Cacatua alba). J Avian Med Surg 17: 124–30 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2000) In vitro effects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs on cyclooxygenase activity in dogs. Am J Vet Res 61(7):802-810 2000 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2006) Meloxicam therapeutic review. Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine 15: 281–3 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2011) Acupuncture for zoological companion animals. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract 14: 141–54 . doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2010.09.010. Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2006) Sleep deprivation and pain perception. Sleep Med Rev 10: 357–69 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2010) Pain and analgesia in domestic animals. In: Comparative and Veterinary Pharmacology. Handb Exp Pharmacol 199: 159–89. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-10324-7_7 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2005) Controlling avian pain. Compendium on Continuing Education for the Practising Veterinarian — North American Edition 27: 299–307 Google Scholar
- (2011) Effects of immune activation and glucocorticoid administration on feather growth in greenfinches. J Exp Zool A Ecol Genet Physiol 315: 527–35. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/jez.701 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1988) Anatomy of CNS opioid receptors. Trends Neurosci 11: 308–14 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1999) Effect of carprofen on lameness in broiler chickens. Vet Rec 144: 668–71 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2008) The pharmacokinetics of meloxicam in vultures. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 31: 128–34. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2885.2007.00923.x Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2004) Diclofenac residues as the cause of vulture population decline in Pakistan. Nature 427(6975): 630–3 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2006) Pain management. In: , eds. Clinical Avian Medicine Vol 1. Spix Publishing Inc, Palm Beach, FL: 233–39 Google Scholar
- (1999) Analgesic effects of butorphanol and buprenorphine in conscious African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus erithacus and Psittacus erithacus timneh). Am J Vet Res 60: 1218–21 Google Scholar
- (2004) Pharmokinetic properties of a single intra-muscular dose of buprenorphine in African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus erithacus). J Avian Med Surg 18: 224–8 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2011) Effect of fentanyl target-controlled infusions on isoflurane minimum anaesthetic concentration and cardiovascular function in red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis). Vet Anaesth Analg 38: 344–51. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2995.2011.00627.x. Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2004) Comparative evaluation of the renal effects of a sevenday therapy with flunixin meglumine ketoprofen and meloxicam in budgerigar (Melopsittacus undutatus).
Proceedings of the Joint Conference of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, American Association of Wildlife Veterinarians and the Wildlife Disease Association ,28 August–3 September 2004 ,San Diego, CA : 610–12 Google Scholar - (1939) Functional aspects of the pneumatic system of the California brown pelican. The Condor 41: 13–17 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2008) Pharmacokinetics of butorphanol tartrate in red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) and great horned owls (Bubo virginianus). Am J Vet Res 69: 596–603 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2009) A multimodal approach to management of suspected neuropathic pain in a prairie falcon (Falco mexicanus). J Avian Med Surg 23: 209–13 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2007) Use of neutontin (gabapentin) to treat leg twitching/foot mutilation in a Senegal parrot.
Proceedings of the Association of Avian Veterinarians Conference ,August 4–9 ,Providence, RI : 81–2 Google Scholar - (2006) Serum concentrations and analgesic effects of liposome-encapsulated and standard butorphanol tartrate in parrots. Am J Vet Res 67: 775–81 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2009) Pharmacokinetics of intravenous and oral tramadol in the bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus). J Avian Med Surg 23: 247–52 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2005) Aspergillosis in Amazon parrots after corticosteroid therapy for smoke-inhalation injury. J Avian Med Surg 19: 138–41 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2004) Determination of expression of cyclooxygenase-1 and-2 isozymes in canine tissues and their differential sensitivity to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs Am J Vet Res 65: 810–18 Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1985) Animal pain: evaluation and control. Lab Anim 19: 20–36 Google Scholar
- (2015) Pharmacokinetic properties of a single administration of oral gabapentin in the great horned owl (Bubo virginianus). J Zoo Wildl Med 46: 547–52 Crossref, Google Scholar
